Asian Journal of Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities Vol. 11, No. 1, 2023
ISSN 2311-3782
Multidisciplinary Journals
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SEMANTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RELATIVE CLAUSES IN ENGLISH
Nguyen Thi Xuan Phuong
Thuongmai University
VIET NAM
ABSTRACT
The article explores the semantic characteristics of relative clauses in English. Through the
combination of qualitative and quantitative methods, the research results clearly show the
frequency of use of relative pronouns in English as well as the key semantic functions of
relative clauses in English such as the semantic characteristics of head nouns or inter-clause.
Keywords: relative clause, semantic characteristics.
1. INTRODUCTION
A subordinate clause, known as a relative clause, is conjoined to the main clause through the
use of a relative pronoun. English relative pronouns function as a means of linkage between
clauses within complex sentences, and commonly include who, whom, which, whose, and
that. Relative clauses are also referred to as adjectival clauses, as they are subordinate clauses
employed to modify or elaborate upon their antecedents. Relative clauses is a special
expression in different languages from different countries, therefore, it has been a topic of
interest for many researchers and scholars in the world and in Vietnam as well.
Through the linguistic lens of relative clauses, overseas investigations can be categorized into
various research domains, including but not limited to examinations of the syntactic
properties of relative clauses within one's home language, investigations into the processing
and comprehension of relative clauses, analyses of the acquisition of relative clauses in
foreign language teaching and learning, and comparative assessments of relative clause
structures across diverse languages.
Several Vietnamese scholars have conducted comprehensive research aimed at analyzing
relative clauses in order to explore diverse aspects of the language. To date, no scholarly
research conducted in the Vietnamese language has verified the existence of relative clauses
within said language. As such, the majority of investigations conducted by scholars in
Vietnam center around the examination of relative clauses within a non-native language. In
contrast to the foreign literature on the topic, Vietnamese scholars primarily examine relative
clauses through a linguistic lens, encompassing various perspectives such as the analysis of
relative clauses in foreign languages and its corresponding counterparts in Vietnamese,
investigations on applied linguistics concerning the incorporation of relative clauses in the
instruction and acquisition of foreign languages, and explorations on the translation of
relative clauses from foreign languages into Vietnamese.
The purpose of this investigation is to examine and provide a comprehensive analysis of
relative clauses from a semantic viewpoint. The author provides a succinct overview of the
organization of relative clauses in the English language as a fundamental premise to facilitate
the juxtaposition and distinction of such structures in relation to their Vietnamese
equivalents.
Asian Journal of Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities Vol. 11, No. 1, 2023
ISSN 2311-3782
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2. RESEARCH METHODS
The present article employs a descriptive approach that integrates both quantitative and
qualitative methodologies through the use of various techniques, including statistical analysis
and the examination of the semantic structures of relative clauses in the dataset.
On the data from 3 classic, renowned and award-winning works, including “To Kill a
Mocking Bird” by Harper Lee, “The Great Gatsby” by Scott Fitzgerald and “To the
Lighthouse” by Virginia Woolf, the author collects 425 expressions with relative clauses
using relative pronouns by descriptive statistics. Through the process of organizing and
categorizing according to forms of relative pronouns, an examination is conducted by the
author on the relative clauses for the purpose of investigating the semantic features of the
relative pronouns within the clauses. The present article exclusively scrutinizes certain
relative pronouns that display a preponderance of usage within the data.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Description of Relative Pronouns
Relative clauses hold a pivotal position as one of the foremost and discernible clauses in the
English language. A clause that modifies a noun by providing additional information and is
commonly initiated by a relative pronoun is known as a relative clause.
Figure 1. Frequency of relative pronouns
3.1.1. Relative pronoun “who”
Figure 1 depicts the customary frequency of relative pronouns employed in the three literary
works under examination. The prevalence of the relative pronoun "who" in replacing a noun
or pronoun denoting a person is evident in the observation that it appears in 151 clauses.
Given that the three pieces being investigated are derived from everyday life contexts, the use
of nouns or pronouns referring to individuals is the most prevalent. Hence, the relative
pronoun "who" constitutes 35.5% of the sample under investigation.
Example 1:
When Uncle Jack caught me, he kept me laughing about a preacher who hated going to
church so much that every day he stood at his gate in his dressing-gown, smoking a hookah
and delivering five-minute sermons to any passers-by who desired spiritual comfort.
Who, 35.5%
Whom, 2.4%
Which,
24.2%
That, 19.8%
Whose, 4.9%
When, 8.2%
Where, 4.9%
Asian Journal of Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities Vol. 11, No. 1, 2023
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Example 1 unmistakably evinces the usage of the relative pronoun "who" twice to substitute
their antecedents, specifically nouns signifying the individual "a preacher" and "passers-by,"
in order to augment the level of information conveyed and provide a more elaborative
description of the individual. This serves the purpose of rendering the sentence more
illustrative and lucid. Consequently, the readers may acquire a more intricate depiction of the
individuals portrayed within the given context. The aforementioned instance exemplifies the
versatile applications of the relative pronoun "who," as it is unconstrained by a specified
quantity of usages within a singular sentence, instead adapting to the quantity of clauses that
constitute said sentence.
3.1.2. Relative pronoun “which”
The data presented in Figure 1 reveals that the relative pronoun "which" exhibits a
considerable degree of frequency, accounting for 24.2% of the total occurrences. The
principal characteristic of a literary genre may be deemed as legitimizable when it is regarded
as a mechanism for effectively presenting the substance in a manner that is imaginative,
symbolic, tacit, and vibrant. The relatively high frequency of usage of the relative pronoun
"which" as a substitute for objects can be accounted for.
Example 2:
They look out of no face but, instead, from a pair of enormous yellow spectacles
which pass over a nonexistent nose.
Example 2 employs the relative pronoun "which" to substitute the preceding noun pertaining
to objects, namely "spectacles," with a particular intention of expanding the sentence's length
and embellishing the clause to portray the "spectacles," thereby inciting reader curiosity. The
aforementioned grammatical structure imparts a sense of academic writing.
In this instance, it is crucial to include a comma prior to the relative pronoun "which" in order
to serve as a discernible indicator for readers of the unique function of said pronoun.
Example 3:
I said I would like it very much, which was a lie, but one must lie under certain
circumstances and at all times when one can’t do anything about them.
The utilization of the relative pronoun "which" by the author serves to substitute the entire
antecedent clause "I would like it very much," thereby offering additional elaboration to the
antecedent clause's information in a succinct manner, aimed at impressing the readers and
ensuring a seamless reading flow, instead of employing a standalone sentence.
3.1.3. Relative pronoun “that”
The relative pronoun "that" exhibits a frequency that takes the third position among all
clauses utilizing relative pronouns, with a percentage of 19.8%. The relative pronoun "that"
exhibits a versatility in its capacity to replace both animate and inanimate referents, thereby
evidencing its flexible usage within discourse. The frequent usage of the relative pronoun
"that" in the data can be attributed to this cause.
Example 4:
The windows were ajar and gleaming white against the fresh grass outside that seemed to
grow a little way into the house.
Asian Journal of Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities Vol. 11, No. 1, 2023
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Example 4 illustrates the application of the relative pronoun "that" as a substitute for a noun
signifying objects anteceding it, akin to the function of "which". The relative pronoun, "that,"
is employed to clarify the antecedent, "the fresh grass outside," in a succinct, coherent, and
impactful manner to the intended audience.
3.2. Semantic characteristics of relative clauses in English
From a semantic perspective, a relative clause encompasses a proposition wherein one of its
components exhibits identical reference to the noun that is being modified by the clause.
Typically, a sentence containing a relative clause is understood to comprise two distinct
clusters of subject-predicate components, which stand in a main-subordinate relationship to
one another.
In the English language, the grammatical construct of relative clauses may be bifurcated into
two distinct types known as defining relative clauses and non-defining relative clauses. A
defining relative clause which includes a proposition deemed familiar or readily available to
the audience, does not constitute novel or confrontational information. Non-defining relative
clauses serve to impart additional thematic context to the listener, which can be deemed
valuable by the speaker through a range of perspectives.
Figure 2. Types of relative clauses
The findings in Figure 7 illustrate the ratio between two distinct forms of relative clauses,
namely definite and non-defining relative clauses, as observed within the research corpus.
The data indicates that non-defining relative clauses constitute the majority of propositions,
accounting for 56% of the total proportion. The primary objective of investigating the
relationships within the three works appears to be centered on furnishing supplementary
details and elaboration related to the modified elements. Furthermore, these relative clauses
have the capacity to omit certain propositions while preserving the overall meaning of the
text. It is necessary to utilize appropriate language conventions when crafting academic
writing. Both types of relative clauses possess the ability to modify both specific nouns and
those with indefinite reference, thereby participating in the formation of semantic attributes
of relative clauses.
3.2.1. Semantic features of head nouns
By analyzing the semantic features of the head noun within the context of a relative clause,
the present study aims to shed light on the salient linguistic properties of this syntactic
Defining
relative
clauses,
44%
Non-
defining
relative
clauses,
56%
Asian Journal of Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities Vol. 11, No. 1, 2023
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construction. Through an investigation of the research corpus, the findings of this inquiry can
yield notable conclusions.
3.2.1.1. Reference of head noun modified by non-defining relative clauses
Non-defining relative clauses are structures that modify nouns whose reference has
been defined for both the speaker and the listener.
Example 4:
Gloucester was one of Mr. Bankes’ favorite cities. It was a hustle and bustle town,
which was filled with luxury high-street shops and modern skyscrapers.
In this example, the reference of the word "town" to the city "Gloucester" has been
predefined for the receiver of the utterance, so the relative clause behind it is not defining.
Example 5:
Atticus stepped into a small trattoria, which was filed with delicious scent and
ordered lunch.
In this example, the word "trattoria" is mentioned for the first time in the context, so
the relative clause has the function of providing some more identifying information to the
noun.
3.2.1.2. Reference of head noun modified by defining relative clauses
A defining relative clause is a syntactic structure utilized to modify a noun in order to
unequivocally elucidate the object under discussion to the reader or listener. The potential for
referentiality is observed in modified nouns. The reference may variably denote singular
entities, such as a person, object, or phenomenon, contingent upon contextual circumstances.
The aforementioned is applicable within a given context or pertains exclusively to one among
many individuals who possess identical attributes.
The English language exhibits article-noun correspondence, whereby 'a' or 'an' constitutes the
indefinite article, 'the' corresponds to the definite article, and the absence of article indicates
zero article. The application of the definite article "the" extends to both singular, plural, and
non-countable nouns. When conjoined with singular and non-countable nouns, it suggests
that the noun at hand is referencing the sole individual, object, occurrence or idea within the
surrounding context.
Example 6:
The sharp jut of a wall accounted for the detachment of the wheel which was now
getting considerable attention from half a dozen curious chauffeurs.
The aforementioned context exclusively encompasses "the detachment of the wheel" as the
sole event, without any other concurrent occurrences. The usage of the definite article "the"
pertains to its reference to nouns that possess a distinct and established identity
acknowledged by both the speaker and the listener.
Conversely, the usage of the indefinite article "a/an" is restricted to singular countable nouns,
signifying the quantity of "one". Its function is to designate a particular individual within a
given category that has not been specified.
Example 7:
One time he killed a man who had found out that he was nephew to von Hindenburg
and second cousin to the devil.
In this example, the article "a" is deployed when the singular countable noun is initially
referred to. In this context, the author provides a piece of information intended to inform the
Asian Journal of Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities Vol. 11, No. 1, 2023
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reader regarding the classification of the new referencing style. The relative clause in the
aforementioned example functions solely to describe and provide additional characteristics of
the person mentioned, without serving an identifying function for the reader. General nouns
are those nouns that have an indefinite reference in the form of plural countable nouns
accompanied by the article "zero" which bears a generalizing and inclusive aspect to a whole
class of entities.
Example 8:
They bore cream-colored envelopes which were stuffed with cash as bridal gifts, no
checks.
In the aforementioned example, the term "cream-colored envelopes" lacks specificity and is
utilized to denote a generalized concept, wherein it represents an indeterminate plural set of
envelopes. The author does not intend to encompass all cream-colored envelopes brought to
the wedding.
The co-reference of nominal entities in defining relative clauses may not always be present.
The aforementioned term may refer to a hypothetical individual.
Example 9:
“Anybody who went up to the house once oughta not to still run every time he passes it,” I
said to the clouds above.
3.2.2. Inter-clause semantic characteristics
The current context provides an opportunity to explore the semantic distinctions between a
main clause and a subordinate clause. Regarding the semantic linkage, only an non-defining
clause exhibits a certain connection with the main clause. Predominantly, this concerns the
semantic relationship that indicates a causal link.
Example 10:
The Dodger, who were not ready to attract public attention by running down the
open street, had nearly lost their conscience.
In terms of the relationship between logic and semantics, the relationship between a non-
defining relative clause and a main clause constitutes an extensional relationship, whereby
details are elaborated. Similarly, the relationship between a definite relative clause and a
main clause constitutes an intensional relationship, whereby further details are specified.
Within the discourse of specification, the aforementioned clause serves to delineate or
particularize the meaning conveyed by the clause in question. The subordinate relative clause
serves to provide further specification and refinement for the already established content,
without adding new elements. It achieves this by utilizing alternative terminology to re-
identify the content, explicitly clarifying its nature, or supplementing descriptive
characteristics or observations.
Example 11:
She told it to the baker’s wife, who told it to the cook.
The relationship between defining clause and main clause is commonly referred to as
appositive construction, whereby the clause is integrated as an internal component of the
structure of a phrase, which in turn becomes an element of the clause. The function of it is to
concretize the members of a class from the medication designated by the noun in question. In
the following example, the phrase "who was with him" explicitly identifies the "girl".
Example 12:
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The girl who was with him got into the papers too because her arm was broken.
Thus, a relative clause serves solely as a detail enhancer for a noun, fulfilling a single logical
and semantic function. The use of defining relative clauses is deemed a crucial element in
providing comprehensive semantic coherence to a sentence. Meanwhile, non-defining
relative clauses are deemed non-essential.
IV. CONCLUSION
This research is conducted with the purpose of surveying and describing the relative clauses
in English in terms of semantics, through which a summary of semantic characteristics of
relative clauses in English is made. The result of this research is the premise for the
comparative and contrastive studies with similar expressions in the Vietnamese language,
which may bring beneficial contributions for the future research.
REFERENCES
1. Harper, L. (2010), To Kill a Mocking Bird, Grand Central Publishing, New York.
2. Jakobson, R. (1959), On Linguistic Aspects of Translation, On Translation, Harvard
University Press.
3. Larson, L.M. (1984), Meaning – based translation. University Press of America.
4. McArthur, T. (1992), The Oxford Companion to the English Language, Oxford University
Press
5. Scott Fitzgerald, F. (2021), The Great Gatsby, Clydesdale.
6. Woolf, V. (1981), To the Lighthouse, Harvest Books.
