Modern Psychological Studies Modern Psychological Studies
Volume 27 Number 1 Article 1
November 2021
De5ning the American Dream: A Generational Comparison De5ning the American Dream: A Generational Comparison
Clara R. Riggio
The Evergreen State College
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DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 1
Abstract
The American Dream has functioned as an idealized view of success in the United States since
its conception in the 1930s. As generations pass, questions of plausibility and definition surround
the American Dream. Over the course of 20 semi-structured interviews composed of open-ended
questions, participants were asked how they defined the American Dream and how plausible they
felt achieving the American Dream was for them. The participants were then compared across
age differences. Across participants, six clear themes were most often associated with the
American Dream: hard work, freedom, social mobility, material gain, family connection, and
individuality. Older participants had a richer and more clear definition of the American Dream
while younger generations expressed more skepticism toward the concept.
DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 2
Defining the American Dream: A Generational Comparison
The American Dream has been the objective for many since its first appearance in James
Truslow Adams’ 1931 book, The Epic of America. Written in the midst of the Great Depression,
Adams sought to motivate the working class by coining the phrase that would inspire a nation,
but how strongly do we hold these beliefs now? The American Dream is defined in this work as,
“a dream of a social order in which each man and each woman shall be able to attain to the
fullest stature of which they are innately capable, and be recognized by others for what they are,
regardless of the fortuitous circumstances of birth or position” (p.375). The definition invokes
thoughts of social mobility and achievement, but who does the dream speak to? Have we, as a
nation, moved away from this ideal or is the American Dream still alive and well?
Many have asked these same questions about the applicability (and achievability) of the
American Dream in the 21st century. A recent National Public Radio (NPR) survey, shows that
40% of lower-income adults responded that the American Dream was “out of reach” compared
to 5% and 3% of higher-income adults and individuals in the top 1%, respectively (Neel, 2020).
A Pew Research study conducted in 2017 found that 17% of people across demographic groups
found the American Dream to be “out of reach,” showing a recent decrease in the belief that the
concept is attainable for everyone (Smith, 2017). However, neither of these studies provided a
definition for their participants. Neel (2020) stated, “the responses reflect whatever people think
it is” (para. 7), while participants in Smith (2017) varied in what they deemed essential to the
concept, a majority citing freedom and family over financial gain.
Certain aspects of the American Dream seem to be more important to some definitions
than others. One core theme that many focus on is the concept of social mobility and the idea
that anyone is capable of moving up the social ladder. While it is known from previous research
DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 3
that one’s social class at birth is greatly correlated with their social class later in life , America’s
social mobility rates in the early 21st century have primarily remained stable (Haskin et al.,
2008). The participants in the two studies conducted by Chambers et al. (2015) showed great
pessimism in regard to social mobility and often underestimated the amount of movement
between social classes. The researchers theorize that this negative view of our nation’s current
social mobility is greatly impacted by the media’s coverage and commentary on unemployment
rates, wealth inequality, and other pressing economic issues in the United States. Viewing social
mobility as unattainable in today’s society may cause it to be less of a defining theme within the
American Dream for younger individuals.
Political and economic changes in recent years seem to have a wide effect on our
society’s beliefs about success. Schoon & Mortimer (2017) conducted research on young
people’s subscription to the idea of the American Dream after the 2008 recession. While the
research indicates young people’s distrust in institutions, it also proves that the American Dream
remains a salient concept that continues to guide individual behavior. One difference from
previous generations, however, is the idea of a “collective agency” or “cooperative
individualism” (Schoon & Mortimer, 2017). These concepts are much more socially, rather than
individually, focused which shows a prioritization of social relationships among younger
generations. Understanding this shift from individual to collective may also help us understand
individual’s definitions of success and whether or not their goals are primarily self-focused. The
American Dream is inherently self-focused in its ideas. This may mean that younger people are
less likely to identify with the American Dream as a goal.
Aronson et al. (2014) collected qualitative data from interviews with young adults
seeking higher education after the Great Recession. Based on these interviews it is apparent that
DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 4
while the Great Recession yielded a lot of fear from young generations, it also emphasized the
importance of higher education and motivated many young people to pursue college degrees.
This shifting of the job market and an approximated 102% increase in the United States student
loan debt over the past decade (Hess, 2020) has created a new motive for financial success and
higher-income jobs for many young people. Some scholars, however, have posited whether or
not money can buy happiness. Nickersen et al. (2003) hypothesized that “aspiring to and
achieving financial success may have negative psychological consequences, such as depression,
anxiety, lessened self-esteem, and dissatisfaction with life”(p.531). To investigate this, the
researchers used longitudinal data in which participants self-reported the importance of personal
financial success and their overall satisfaction with life, both when they were college students
and approximately 20 years later. This research suggested that while there did appear to be
“negative consequences of the goal for financial success, these consequences are neither as
deleterious nor as pervasive as previous studies have suggested” (Nickersen et al., 2003 p.535).
Despite the inverse relationship between financial goals and satisfaction with life, researchers
determined that “the positive effect of household income on overall life satisfaction was stronger
than the negative effect of the goal for financial success” (Nickersen et al., 2003, p. 535). This
research shows a strong linkage between financial prosperity and happiness. This could imply a
larger attribution of material and financial gain to the idea of the American Dream.
Upon uncovering some of the themes that are most frequently associated with the
American Dream, I began to wonder if the differences across definitions could be compared
across demographics. Race has been the most frequently studied demographic and shows some
interesting comparisons. Cohen-Marks and Stout (2011) used data from a Los Angeles study to
look at various racial and ethnic groups’ perceptions of the American Dream. Their findings
DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 5
indicate that many minority groups do not feel that they have achieved or will achieve the ideal
of the American Dream, the exception being Latinx individuals who generally have a more
optimistic approach to the idea. Cohen-Marks and Stout did, however, find that despite some
pessimistic views of the American Dream, there was no evidence of diluted faith in the concept.
In Devos et al. (2010), the researchers argue that a national identity is not equally accessible to
all Americans. This is shown in the implicit and explicit perceptions of Americans and what
groups of people are more often associated with the nationality. It is apparent from the research
that members of the Latinx community are less likely to be viewed as American by both white
and Latinx individuals. This lack of identification with Americanism could be the driving force
behind achieving the American Dream. This idea could encourage further research around
working toward the American Dream as a means of assimilation to dominant culture.
In Cernkovich et al. (2000), researchers explored the ways that strain and social control
theory’s effects on criminology also had an effect on African Americans’ perceptions of
economic success and achieving the American Dream. The researchers supported the argument
that social class differences affect one’s aspirations and expectations in regard to economic
achievement. The Life Role Salience scale, which asks individuals to determine how important
certain work, familial, and societal roles are to them, was used in the study to measure
participants’ commitment to certain roles that were heavily associated with the material and
career aspects of the American Dream. The findings of this study indicate that low-income Black
Americans maintain a stronger commitment to the career and material goals of the American
Dream than their white counterparts. In 2012, Stout & Le published their findings on changed
perceptions of the American Dream among Black Americans due to the increase in positive
symbols for the Black community, specifically the election of President Barack Obama. Surveys
DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 6
conducted between 1987 and 2010 suggest that despite worsening economic statuses among
Black Americans, positive perspectives toward the American Dream increased after Obama’s
election. The research also suggests that Black Americans are more likely to associate hard work
with success than their White counterparts. Stout & Le (2012) argue that positive symbols have a
greater effect on Black perceptions of the American Dream than economic and career success.
Race as a mechanism for measuring identification with the American Dream is a fruitful area of
research. There is a lack, however, in qualitative methodology and deeper discussion around the
meanings of the American Dream to marginalized peoples.
Generational differences are another area that has been understudied. While we have seen
a recent decline in belief in the American Dream, it is unclear whether or not younger people
value it as closely as their older counterparts. Though some studies such as Dries et al. (2008)
have looked into the ways different generations define success, there has been relatively little
overall difference. In that particular study, the primary category through which success was
measured was life satisfaction, which appeared as the priority across age groups. There is also a
lack of qualitative research in this area and the concept of the American Dream in general. In
reviewing the literature and coming up with my own definition of the American Dream, I
decided to conduct this research.
My main goal is to determine what themes people associate with the American Dream
and whether these themes differ across generations. This research will compare Baby Boomers
and Generation X with participants who are Millennials and Generation Z. I theorized that older
individuals would identify more strongly with the concept of the American Dream and that
younger individuals would express more skepticism. All research within this study was
conducted by me, the author. I identify as a white woman and am a member of Generation Z. I
DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 7
was born into an upper-middle-class family and raised in the suburbs of Los Angeles, California.
I would also consider myself liberal and am a registered Democrat. My ancestry is broadly
European and my mother and father are, respectively, first and second generation Americans.
These factors could have a hand in the collection of my data and could influence the ways I view
the phenomenon of the American Dream. Though I maintained a stance of impartiality, asking
the same questions to each participant, my demographics, heritage, and beliefs could have an
influence on my participants, analysis, and the study as a whole.
Method
Participants
I interviewed 20 individuals (students and staff) that were recruited at The Evergreen
State College, a small liberal arts college in Olympia, Washington. To create a generational
comparison, eight of my participants were born before 1981 (which includes Generation X and
Baby Boomers) and the other twelve were born in 1981 or after (which includes Millennials and
Generation Z). Out of these participants, ten identified as men, nine identified as women, and
one identified as non-binary.
Materials
The schedule for the interviews was semi-structured and open-ended. In these interviews,
I asked open-ended questions about each participant’s perceptions of, and identification with, the
American Dream (Appendix). I also included questions about the participant’s familial history
and whether or not they feel components like immigrant status, age, or race affect their definition
of the American Dream. The questions I chose were meant to delve deeper into the individual’s
personal life and determine if their definition was unique to their experiences. I employed family
history questions to ask about their parents and grandparents to determine how previous
DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 8
generations have instilled or rejected the concept in their lives. I also enjoyed hearing about
participants’ paths to achieving the American Dream and whether or not they felt it to be an
important goal in their lives.
Procedure
In order to gather information on participants’ individual definitions of the “American
Dream”, I conducted semi-structured, qualitative interviews. First, I approached students and
staff members on The Evergreen State College campus and explained the interview process. The
interviews were conducted in private study rooms in the library building and took approximately
15 to 30 minutes per participant. During the interview, I audio recorded participants’ answers.
After these interviews were conducted, I transcribed the audio recordings and was able to code
for thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). In doing this, I looked for major trends in
vocabulary that were used when defining the “American Dream” as well as the imagery,
characters, and qualities that participants associated with the concept. Lastly, I looked for trends
in each generation and was able to compare and contrast participants across generations.
Results
Over the course of these 20 interviews, multiple recurring topics of conversation stood
out, playing significant roles in the way these participants defined the American Dream.
Definitions were influenced by extraneous factors such as family history, skepticism toward the
United States government, and generational differences. The most common themes that occurred
across these differences included hard work, freedom, social mobility, material gain, family
connection, and individuality.
Hard Work
DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 9
Hard work was one of the most cited qualities associated with the American Dream.
Because of its importance in relation to work, especially among those in the working class, the
American Dream is invariably linked to an individual’s ability to work hard to reach their goals.
One older participant stated that the entire basis of the American Dream was, “the idea that you
can pull yourself up by your bootstraps. That you can be a self-made man or a self-made
woman.” This is often the precursor to achieving the American Dream and is one of the most
recognized aspects in literature and other narratives.
Seeking higher education was especially important to a lot of participants and showed
that hard work extended in other ways beyond manual labor. A Millennial cited all of the work
that would allow her to achieve the American Dream stating, “My plans are to finish college, go
to grad school, get a white-collar job, buy some land and a house, that’s still the American
Dream.” This seems to be a typical life path for many Americans in the 21st century and much of
the late 20th century. Even within the last decade, we have seen a vast increase in Americans
who hold college degrees. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, “From 2010 to 2019, the
percentage of people age 25 and older with a bachelor’s degree or higher jumped from 29.9% to
36.0%”(Alonzo, 2019). Many people have also avoided the traditional college route and returned
to school later in life. This increase has greatly changed the demographics of our workforce in
terms of level of education.
Freedom
As the United States is considered “the land of the free,” it’s no surprise that freedom is
also linked to the American Dream. Many participants spoke about the freedom to do as they
please, whether that be from a place of success or simply one of our inalienable Constitutional
DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 10
rights. An older participant, an immigrant from Germany, began her interview by defining the
American Dream.
The American Dream is, first of all, freedom. Freedom from restrictions from the
government. Freedom from entanglement in things that you don’t want to be
entangled in. American freedom is the best thing. That’s why we all came here.
This particular participant emphasized that even the simplest of freedoms, such as freedom of
expression or protest, ensure that our lives in America, although they can be hard, are much more
privileged than other places in the world.
Another older participant, a man in Generation X, emphasized the way that choice and
the American Dream are vital to our society. He states that individuals in the United States do
not need to conform to the ways of society if they do not want to. When asked about the
importance of the American Dream in his life, he responded, “I find it more as a right than a
dream. Like we have this privileged right to have what we want to have…”. This quote displays
a sense of rightful ownership in the promise of the American Dream. This has been a promise of
many politicians throughout the years. Trump even stated that in the case of a Biden presidency,
“You could say goodbye to your American Dream” (Wolak & Peterson, 2020). Our right to the
American Dream has been promised time and time again, but few have been able to deliver in a
way that truly satiates the American people.
Social Mobility
Social mobility is another key component of the American Dream that involves ending in
a better social or economic position than where you began. This notion was expressed in many
interviews, especially when discussing familial history. The idea of doing “better” than the
generations before you and hoping future generations share the same improvement. One older
DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 11
participant touched on the idea of social mobility through sharing experiences from his
childhood.
I was raised in a public housing project in Tacoma [Washington]. My mother was
a single mother. We didn’t have much. And I think that idea helped me to get out
of the projects, do well in school, and get a college education… it was quite clear
if I worked hard… I could do something. I could at least get out of the project,
have a decent job.
These improvements were often seen in older generations, such as grandparents or great-
grandparents. The notion was also heavily linked to individual’s definitions of the American
Dream, with one participant stating that the most basic point of the American Dream is that,
“anyone can grow up to be president. That there’s this way that no matter where you start, you
can end up in a different place and that opportunities are open to all people.”
Material Gain
When asked what they envisioned when hearing the term “American Dream” many
participants painted a picture of the nuclear family living in suburbia. These ideal lifestyles have
included material items such as, “a white picket fence, golden retriever, and two-car garage” or
can be as simple as owning your own home. While some examples of material gain could be
extravagant, one younger participant explained that the American Dream is truly about, “having
the feeling… you’re at home and… have all the resources to be okay.” Many participants also
mentioned being “comfortable” which was read as having enough resources and not having to
worry about scarcity.
A Baby Boomer man cited his grandmother, an interior designer, as one of his role
models in achieving the American Dream. “She got to travel the world and interact a lot with
DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 12
famous designers… in San Francisco and L.A.”. High-profile jobs and examples of luxury
(traveling to expensive cities, rubbing elbows with celebrities, etc.) have become crucial to some
people’s idea of success. These examples all revolve around money, affluence, and material
items. Another Boomer man brings up the example of author Horatio Alger. Alger wrote stories
for young adults in the late 19th century. His stories often consisted of a “rags-to-riches”
narrative where a young man (who embodies positive qualities like honesty and integrity) rises
into the middle class and achieves financial success. These stories inspired young people and
encouraged them to make their own way.
Family Connection
Many interviews touched on wanting to be able to provide for a future family. Marriage
was not discussed often, but children were. Some participants brought up how important familial
bonds were to the previous generations in their families. One participant, whose great-
grandparents immigrated from Norway, included family in her definition of the American Dream
They were able to establish a life here … they were able to start a family, a farm,
they were able to just do things and I think for my great-grandma and grandpa
that was just their dream: to raise their children and have generations after
generations in America, where everything was evolving. I feel like that’s the true
definition of the American Dream…
Other participants vaguely mentioned familial happiness in their idea of success and achieving
the American Dream, while others questioned if children were going to be a part of the equation
for them. One older participant stressed that her emphasis on family was not about offspring but
for the family that was already around her. She stated, “I know that for my family, it’s about
family. Having that home, and the kids, and the grandkids and all that. But for me it’s about
DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 13
being around my family,” citing her nieces, nephews, and siblings as the most important people
in that example.
Individuality
In a lot of ways, this theme of individuality is opposite of wanting a familial connection,
but is also about achievement on one’s own, without financial support from another party. In a
quote from an older participant, it is evident that media, such as movies and books, play a large
role in the way we define the American Dream.
I think of all these movies… of like the cowboy, out there, on their own, making
things happen. And this doesn’t have to be an actual cowboy or cowboy on a
horse, but it could be a cowboy in the city. That archetype. And so I’m sure that
feeds into my idea of myself, at least in different points in my life. “I’m gonna go
and do this on my own. I’m gonna make this thing happen by myself”.
A younger participant claimed that creativity and ingenuity were both important qualities for a
person achieving the American Dream to have, showing the importance of individual expression.
We see the need for individuality in so many facets of our society. Creativity, innovation,
and uniqueness are all heavily valued. One Generation Z participant cited Kylie Jenner as a
model of the American Dream, due to her owning her own business, making a name for herself,
and becoming a unique name in the world of pop culture. The same participant spoke to a similar
sentiment that is held by many in the younger generations. The growing idea that we do not need
to fit into the American Dream’s mold is becoming more popular. The participant finished their
interview by stating, “My age group is more able to expand on ideas and know not everything is
set in stone and the American Dream changes…” showing that the path to fulfilling the Dream is
ever-changing and distinctive to each individual.
DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 14
Generational Comparison
While these interviews were primarily focused on the recurring themes that play into
individuals’ definitions of the American Dream, other important aspects of the interviews were
assessed in order to better understand the divide between the generations. When asked if they
embraced or rejected the American Dream, a majority of participants in the study stated that they
were more ambivalent about the concept and the way it is practiced in the United States. One
participant, a member of Generation Z, stated that he “[likes] what it stands for… I embrace the
ideals that it provides though I do reject some of the… historical things that are tied to it”.
Younger participants were very diverse in the way they felt about the American Dream, equally
embracing, rejecting, and feeling ambivalent toward the concept. A majority of older participants
felt ambivalent to the idea or embraced it while only one blatantly rejected the American Dream.
Younger participants expressed doubt and openly scrutinized the idea of the American
Dream and their perceived failings of the current U.S. government 2.4 times more often than
those in older generations. Some cited this as cynicism while others simply doubted whether or
not the American Dream was an accurate, achievable goal. One millennial participant described
the underlying issues that she believes are used to perpetuate the goal of the American Dream.
She states, “It’s kind of a myth that’s been used to justify certain behaviors... the ‘pull yourself
up by your bootstraps’ … to turn away from looking at social inequality and issues of systemic
oppression.” This suspicion toward the American Dream was also expressed heavily when
participants were asked whether or not they felt their race affected their definition or perception
of the idea. A majority of the participants were white and expressed some amount of guilt or
recognized their privilege within United States society. Many participants felt that because they
DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 15
were given certain opportunities in life because of their race, they were not identifiable as
achievers of the American Dream.
Discussion
Within the current study, it was made clear that no two people have the same definition
of the American Dream. Although similar themes were expressed throughout, particular themes
were of more importance to different participants. Hard work and material gain were definitely
the two most cited themes throughout the research, often remaining linked as a cause and effect.
Older participants showed more variation in the themes they mentioned, painting a descriptive
image of the American Dream in all of its forms. Younger participants cited material gain most
often while older participants focused heavily on hard work, with familial connections and
individuality following closely. The frequency that these themes were mentioned by older
participants could signify a more multifaceted definition than those of their younger
counterparts.
Possible limitations to the study were most likely surrounding the number of participants
and their backgrounds. This sample was by no means representative of the demographic makeup
of the American people. A majority of my participants identified themselves as white and were
primarily students and staff on The Evergreen State College campus. The lack of representation
from people of color and individuals from varying socioeconomic classes may not create a
holistic definition of the American Dream that can be applied to everyone living in the United
States. Political ideologies may also play a role in the participants’ responses, as The Evergreen
State College seems to have a primarily liberal student body. Conducting further research with
Black, Indigenous, and other Americans of color, as well as immigrants would be much more
indicative of the ways the American Dream is perceived. Another limitation is the possibility of
DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 16
my own demographics and biases affecting the research, the participants that I interviewed, and
the way they responded to my questions.
Although this population is not completely representative of the United States
populations, it still does create a basis, off which further research can be based. One area of
interest throughout these interviews was the responses from the four immigrants I interviewed.
Each of these participants came from very different parts of the world and it was fascinating to
see where the similarities and differences lied. Many cited hard work, repeatedly, while others
discussed the expansive freedom that the United States of America allows. Future studies can
proceed in a number of different directions as the American Dream is truly a multi-faceted
concept. The Life Role Salience scale that was used to determine Black Americans’
identification with the American Dream and its components in Cernkovich et al. (2000) could
potentially be useful in understanding whether other groups identify with these roles across
ideologies, ages, race, and gender. One future direction for this research would be interviewing
students who are members of the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program.
DACA “Dreamers” make up a large population of college students in the United States. I hope to
conduct this research with Dreamers in the future in order to understand their view of America
and what opportunities they have here. Another useful direction this research could extend in is
the ways that the American Dream is taught to children of different racial and socioeconomic
backgrounds. It was very interesting to hear about people’s experiences with their parents and
previous generations, but it also may be useful to investigate the language surrounding the
American Dream that is taught to us in schools as children.
The American Dream is a grossly under-researched topic, especially in today’s political
climate. Politicians push the idea that anyone can become rich and successful if they work hard
DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 17
and make good choices, but many find the American Dream to be less plausible in today’s
economy and society. The American Dream encourages the working class to continue working
until they have surpassed their superiors. The use of this concept to maintain subservience and
reinforce the idea that hard work pays off is questionable, especially in today’s political climate.
The overall concept of the American Dream is viewed as a positive, motivating force in our
society, but its underlying motivation could prove that its implementation is dangerous and
inequitable to the working class.
DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 18
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DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 20
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DEFINING THE AMERICAN DREAM 21
Appendix
American Dream Interview Questions
1) How do you define “The American Dream”? What does “The American Dream” represent
to you?
2) What symbolism, images, characters, groups, or qualities do you associate with the
American Dream?
3) How important is the idea of the American Dream to you? Why?
4) In what ways do you identify with the idea of the American Dream?
5) In what ways do you embrace or reject the idea of the American Dream?
6) Have you/Will you achieve the American Dream? Why/How?
7) How long ago did your family immigrate to America? Where from?
8) From your perspective, did your parents/guardians achieve the American Dream? How?
9) Would your parents/guardians say they achieved the American Dream? Why?
10) In what ways was the American Dream important to your parents/guardians?
11) How important was the American Dream to previous generations in your family, such as
grandparents?
12) What ethnicity are you?
13) Would you say your ethnicity affects your definition? Why/Why not?
14) What year were you born?
15) Would you say your age affects your definition? Why/Why not?
