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30
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FIRE IN THE ARCTIC:
e eect of wildre across diverse aquatic
ecosystems of the Northwest Territories
dierenate the eects of wildre from other landscape
variables that cumulavely impact aquac ecosystem
health. While wildre had a clear eect on the chemical
composion of pore waters, this eect was diminished
at the stream outlet and at the landscape scale. Rather
than having an overriding eect on water quality, wildre
appears to be one of many landscape variables that act
in concert to determine water quality in the southern
NWT.
Introduction
During the summer of 2014, the southern Northwest
Territories (NWT) experienced an unprecedented
wildre season, with a burn footprint that spread across
two ecoregions (the Taiga Plains and Taiga Shield), and a
landscape underlain by a mosaic of permafrost coverage,
vegetaon type, and previous re history (Fig. 1, 2).
Our study was conducted across the Dehcho, Tłı
̨
chǫ-
Suggested citation:
Tank, S.E., Olefeldt, D., Quinton, W.L., Spence, C., Dion, N., Ackley, C., Burd, K., Hutchins, R., and Mengistu, S., 2018. Fire in the Arctic: The effect of
wildre across diverse aquatic ecosystems of the Northwest Territories. Polar Knowledge: Aqhaliat 2018, Polar Knowledge Canada, p. 31–38.
DOI: 10.35298/pkc.2018.04
During the summer of 2014, the southern Northwest
Territories (NWT) experienced an unprecedented
wildre season, with burned areas spread across two
ecoregions (the Taiga Plains and Taiga Shield) and a
landscape underlain by a mosaic of permafrost coverage,
vegetaon type, and previous re history. Our study was
conducted across the Dehcho, Tłı
̨
chǫ-Wek’èezhii, and
Akaitcho Regions of the NWT, which encompass the most
signicantly burned areas from the 2014 re season.
Within these regions, we worked in paired burned–
unburned catchments on the Taiga Plains and Taiga
Shield to examine responses to re within ground and
surface waters. We addionally examined water quality
across a series of 50 catchments that were straed
across ecoregion and by re history, and varied in within-
catchment characteriscs such as wetland extent. This
sampling scheme — which covers as signicant a range
of landscape variability as possible — is allowing us to
Wilkinson, P. R. 1967. The distribuon of Dermacentor
cks in Canada in relaon to bioclimac zones. Canadian
Journal of Zoology 45:517–537.
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R. 2008. Seasonal dynamics and persistence of
Gyrodactylus salaris in two riverine anadromous Arcc
char populaons. Environmental Biology of Fishes
83:117–123.
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H. 1987. An outbreak of schistosomiasis in Atlanc Brant
geese, Branta bernicla hrota. Journal of Wildlife Diseases
23:248–255.
World Health Organizaon. 2018. Echinococcosis.
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sheets/detail/echinococcosis [accessed 30 September
2018].
Sco, J. D., Fernando, K., Banerjee, S. N., Durden, L. A.,
Byrne, S. K., Banerjee, M., Mann, R. B., and Morshed,
M. C. 2001. Birds disperse Ixodid (Acari: Ixodidae) and
Borrelia burgdorferi-infected cks in Canada. Journal of
Medical Entomology 38:493–500.
Smith, H. J. 1978. Status of trichinosis in bears in the
Atlanc provinces of Canada 1971–1976. Canadian
Journal of Comparave Medicine 42:244–245.
Thompson, R. C., Boxell, A. C., Ralston, B. J., Constanne,
C. C., Hobbs, R. P., Shury, T., and Olson, M. E. 2006.
Molecular and morphological characterizaon of
Echinococcus in cervids from North America. Parasitology
132:439–447.
Thorshaug, K. and Rosted, A. F. 1956. Researches into
the prevalence of trichinosis in animals in Arcc and
Antarcc waters. Nordisk Veterinaermedicin 8:115–129.
Suzanne E. T
ank
1 *
, David Olefeldt
2
, William L. Quinton
3
, Christopher Spence
4
, Nicole Dion
5
, Caren Ackley
3
,
Katheryn Burd
2
, Ryan Hutchins
1
, and Samson Mengistu
1
1
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
2
Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
3
Centre for Cold Regions and Water Science, Wilfred Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
4
Environment and Climate Change Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
5
Water Resources Department, Government of Northwest Territories, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, Canada
Abstract
POLAR KNOWLEDGE Aqhaliat
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POLAR KNOWLEDGE Aqhaliat
diverse landscape types, and thus, also understand
changes in natural resources (food webs, sh) and
infrastructure (drinking water) that might result.
Methods
Our cascading hillslope - to catchment - to landscape
design took a three-ered approach. First, we worked
within targeted burned and unburned sites on the
Taiga Plains (Notawohka and Scoy Creeks) and Taiga
Shield (Boundary and Baker Creeks; Fig. 2) to examine
the eects of wildre on ground temperature, snow
accumulaon, frost-table depth, and the chemical
composion of water available for runo downslope to
streams (i.e., mobile pore water). Second, we undertook
frequent measures of stream-outlet chemistry within
these paired catchments, to beer understand the ne-
scale response of catchments to wildre. Finally, we
undertook a synopc survey of 50 burned and unburned
catchments (Fig. 2) during June-July of 2016 and May-
June of 2017, with a subset of these catchments being
addionally sampled in August and September of 2016.
This work was carried out as a collaborave eort
between academic researchers, Federal government
sciensts, and aquac sciensts from the Government
of the Northwest Territories (GNWT). Residents of the
layer and underlying permafrost; Gibson 2017), which
can enable the ow of water and associated chemical
constuents throughout the year. These wildre-
associated changes in water chemistry are important
because changes in within-stream concentraons of
nutrients, organics, sediments, and contaminants may
in turn alter the ecological funconing of freshwater
systems (see, for example, Minshall et al. 2001, Allen et
al. 2005, Kelly et al. 2006, Smith et al. 2011, and Silins et
al. 2014).
Although the inuence of wildre on water chemistry
has been invesgated in some northern hillslope systems
and within small Subarcc catchments, including in
Alaska (Bes and Jones 2009, Koch et al. 2014), it has
been poorly studied in the NWT. This is of concern from
an NWT-specic perspecve, because the Subarcc
landscape is composed of a diversity of region-specic
landscape features, which may act cumulavely and in
disnct ways to inuence downslope water chemistry.
Given that wildre frequency is increasing in northern
Canada (Kasischke and Turetsky 2006; Flannigan et al.
2009), it is imperave that we undertake region-specic
assessments of its eect on aquac and other ecosystem
components. Such targeted assessments will help to
predict how re might aect aquac ecosystems across
ecosystems. For example, combuson of organic layers
and loss of vegetaon can increase nutrients (Bes and
Jones 2009; Fig. 2) and toxins like mercury (Kelly et al.
2006) but decrease organics (Bes and Jones 2009) in
recipient aquac ecosystems, although results can also
be mixed (e.g., Olefeldt et al. 2013). Following wildre,
the burn scar is also more suscepble to permafrost
thaw than adjacent undisturbed areas, because the
loss of tree canopy allows greater energy loading at
the ground surface, while the blackened ground also
absorbs more energy. The resultant deepening of acve
layers can further aect the chemistry of water owing
from land to streams, as soils that were previously frozen
become available for contact with water. In On the Taiga
Shield, soils typically consist of organic horizons down
to bedrock, with thin mineral soils. In contrast, deep
peatlands are abundant on the Taiga Plains, but the
underlying soil is composed of thick mineral lls. Thus,
the eect of wildre might be expected to fundamentally
dier between these two regions, with increases in
organics where deepening or lengthening ow paths
enable access to organic soils, and increases in inorganic
nutrients (e.g., nitrate and phosphate) and ions where
water is routed through inorganic horizons. Deepening
thaw can also encourage the establishment of taliks (i.e.,
a perennially thawed layer between the overlying acve
Wek’èezhii, and Akaitcho Regions, which encompass
the most extensively burned areas from the 2014 re
season. We undertook a ered hillslope - to catchment
- to landscape approach to understand how the eects
of re cascade through aquac ecosystems, from the
smallest scale (hillslope pore waters) to the largest scale
(the southern NWT landscape). To do this, we coupled
intensive measurements of pore-water and stream-
outlet chemistry in selected burned and unburned
catchments with a series of extensive measurements
across 50 catchments that varied by within-catchment
re extent, ecoregion, and characteriscs such as
wetland extent (Fig. 2). This design is allowing us to
explore the mechanisc eects of wildre on stream
water quality, while also dierenang these eects
from other landscape variables that cumulavely aect
the characteriscs of aquac ecosystems.
Previous research has shown that wildre can
substanally alter the chemistry of downslope freshwater
Figure 1: Images of burned regions on the Taiga Shield (a;
Boundary Creek) and Taiga Plains (b; Spence Creek); potenal
nutrient eects downstream of a burn scar (c; algal mats
in Notawohka Creek that are not common elsewhere); and
recovery from burn two years post-re (d; stream draining to
Lac La Martre, Wha).
Figure 2: (a) Sampling locaons superimposed on the 2013–2016 re perimeters (the paired burned-unburned catchments
that were the focus of our intensive measurements are indicated in blue; the 50 synopc sampling locaons are indicated in
orange) and (b) Fire history for the region, with the more detailed area of panel (a) indicated by a box.
a)
b)
c)
d)
a) b)
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POLAR KNOWLEDGE Aqhaliat
other variable landscape characteriscs to cause a clear
eect on water chemistry across the synopc sites that
we invesgated.
It is worth nong that the synopc study results that we
present were collected during relavely low-ow mid-
summer condions, when connecvity between streams
and the landscape can be low, and also two summers
following the 2014 burn season (i.e., for samples
collected during summer 2016; Fig. 1d shows a typical
catchment two years post-re). Our paired catchment
work did suggest that constuents including DOC, ions,
and selected metals were elevated in the spring runo
period immediately post-re (see, for example, the
evidence of increased nutrients immediately post-re
in Fig. 1c). However, this eect was short lived. Across
the southern NWT, it appears that wildre is but one of
export over the full season in paired burned-unburned
catchments was much more modest (Fig. 5b). Across the 50
synopc sites that were sampled mid-summer 2016, this
dierence disappears, with no overriding eect of wildre
on DOC concentraon (Fig. 5c) across the wide variety of
watersheds that we sampled (Fig. 4). This overall nding
of weak to no eects of wildre at the synopc scale was
consistent across other key water-quality parameters. For
example, nutrients, which drive primary producon at the
base of aquac food webs (total dissolved nitrogen; total
dissolved phosphorus; Fig. 5d and 5e), and ions, which can
be indicave of changing (deepening and/or transioning
to perennial) ow paths on land (using calcium as an
example; Fig. 5f), also showed no dierence between
burned and unburned catchments. Although in some
cases there were dierences in chemical constuents
between ecoregions (e.g., Fig. 5f), wildre did not override
Doppler Velocimeter (SonTek Inc., San Diego, CA) and
the cross-seconal area-velocity method.
Catchment boundaries were delineated from a
20-metre digital elevaon model (hp://geogras.
gc.ca), using ArcGIS (10.5) with the hydrology toolbox.
Catchment-outlet coordinates acquired during sample
collecon were used as pour points for the delineaons.
Catchment delineaons were used to derive catchment
characteriscs, including slope and percent cover of
various landscape types (Canadian Land Cover, circa
2000 (Vector) - GeoBase Series). Catchment re scar
areas were extracted from Naonal Fire Database GIS
layers provided by the Canadian Forest Service.
Preliminary results
Collaboraon with government partners and community
assistance allowed us to achieve strong temporal and
spaal coverage in our sampling eorts. Our paired
catchment work successfully captured inial spring ows in
2015, which represented the rst runo pulse following the
2014 wildre season (Fig. 3). Subsequent sampling enabled
excellent coverage of the spring freshet in 2016 and 2017,
and connued collecon throughout each of the three
sample years in cases where ows connued under ice (e.g.,
Boundary Creek; Fig. 3). Our synopc survey eecvely
captured a range of landscapes within each of the Taiga
Plains and Taiga Shield. For example, the within-watershed
coverage of lakes and wetlands varied from levels near
zero percent to greater than 80% of the catchment, while
mean catchment slope — an important regulator of water
residence on the landscape — varied across a substanal
gradient in each of the two ecoregions (Fig. 4). Wildre-
aected catchments were well distributed across these
landscape gradients, and encompassed about half of the
catchments surveyed. Shield and Plains regions diered in
their proporon of lakes, wetlands, and mean catchment
slope, following the underlying dierences between these
physiographic regions.
Burned and unburned sites clearly diered in their water
chemistry at the plot scale, but these dierences appeared
to diminish with movement through the hydrologic
network (Fig. 5). For example, using dissolved organic
carbon (DOC) as a model chemical species, our results
show elevated DOC concentraons in burned pore waters
of the Taiga Plains (Fig. 5a), but that this signal dampens
at the catchment outlet, where the increase in DOC
communies of Jean Marie River, Fort Simpson, Whatì,
Wekweètì, and Gamètì were also integral to project planning
and sample collection, as outlined below.
To target water available for movement downslope, pore-
water samples were collected at the water table using
MacroRhizon samplers (0.15 µm pore size; Rhizosphere
Research Products, Wageningen, the Netherlands) (Burd
et al. 2018) or by ltering water collected from pit samples
(Sartorius 0.45 µm). Samples for this component were
analyzed at the University of Alberta, either in individual
laboratories or at the CALA-accredited (ISO 17025)
Biogeochemical Analycal Service Laboratory (BASL).
Our targeted paired burned-unburned catchments were
sampled weekly for four weeks following the onset of
ow in the spring, and monthly thereaer in each of
2015, 2016, and 2017. Paired catchment-outlet samples
were collected using protocols established by the
GNWT Water Resources Division, and the samples were
analyzed at the GWNT Taiga Environmental Laboratory.
Pre-exisng (Baker Creek, unburned) and project-specic
(Boundary Creek, burned) meteorological staons on the
Taiga Shield collected air temperature, relave humidity,
net radiaon, wind speed, and rainfall, and were coupled
with frost-table measurements in burned and unburned
terrains in Baker, Boundary, and Scoy Creeks.
For our 50-site synopc surveys, we accessed all possible
streams located near Highways 1 and 3, and addionally
worked with the communies of Wha, Wekweè, and
Gamè to access stream sites from the lakes on which
these communies are located. Sampling locaons
were straed across burned and unburned terrains.
Chemistry samples were collected following standard
protocols, eld-ltered (pre-combusted Whatman GF/F
lters, 0.7 µm pore size), and stored chilled, in the dark,
for later analysis at the University of Alberta’s BASL.
To allow us to calculate constuent export and normalize
total constuent ux by watershed area (i.e., yield; Tank
et al. 2012), we also measured discharge at each site.
Of the four paired catchment sites, discharge data are
acvely collected by the Water Survey of Canada at Scoy
and Baker Creeks. For Boundary and Notawohka Creeks,
discharge was determined using in-stream pressure
transducers and the development of stage-discharge
rang curves. For the 50 synopc sites, point discharge
was measured concurrent with water chemistry sample
collecon using a FlowTracker2 hand-held Acousc
Figure 3: Sampling dates (circles) superimposed on discharge hydrographs for the paired catchment sites to show sample
coverage across varying ow condions: (a) Scoy and Notawohka Creeks sampling dates superimposed on the Scoy Creek
hydrograph, (b) Baker Creek sampling dates superimposed on the Baker Creek hydrograph (note log scale), and (c) Boundary
Creek sampling dates superimposed on the Boundary Creek hydrograph.
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In Jean Marie River, we were fortunate to have Derek
Norwegian, Bill Norwegian, Douglas Norwegian, Richard
Sanguez, Stanley Sanguez, and Borris Sanguez assisng
with our sampling eorts. Funding for this research was
from Polar Canada, the Cumulave Impacts Monitoring
Program, the Campus Alberta Innovates Program, and
the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council
of Canada, as well as in-kind support from the GNWT.
References
Allen, E.W., Prepas, E.E., Gabos, S., Strachan, W.M.J.,
and Zhang, W.P. 2005. Methyl mercury concentraons
in macroinvertebrates and sh from burned and
undisturbed lakes on the Boreal Plain. Canadian Journal
of Fisheries and Aquac Sciences 62:1963–1977. doi:
10.1139/f05-103.
concern. These linkages are also ongoing in associated
projects.
Acknowledgements
This research would not have occurred without the
assistance of community directors in the Tłı
̨
chǫ region
(April Alexis and Shirley Dokum, Wha; Gloria Ekendia-
Gon, Gamè; Adeline Football, Wekweè) and Chief
Gladys Norwegian in Jean Marie River. These individuals
idened community members who were instrumental
in guiding our use of local lands and assisng us to idenfy
streams within each of the communies where we
conducted this work. Wayne and Lynn McKay were also
crical for our paired sampling on the Taiga Plains. In the
Tłı
̨
chǫ region, we were fortunate to have Lloyd Bishop
(Wha), Alfred Arrowmaker (Gamè), and William Quie
(Wekweè) directly involved in our sampling eorts.
res aected the majority of NWT residents, resulng
in road closures, mulple community evacuaons, and
signicant concern about the ecological and human
health eects of this catastrophic disturbance (Baltzer
and Johnstone 2015). This concern led to a collaborave
workshop that assembled Territorial government
sciensts and managers, academic sciensts, and Federal
government sciensts. It was this workshop that was the
genesis for this work. Our research occurred in direct
collaboraon with sta of the GNWT Water Resources
Division, who helped with the study design and played
a key role in eld eorts. Their central involvement in
these eorts has been crical for ensuring that Territorial
priories are being met as part of this research eort.
We used a variety of avenues to enable linkages between
our research and local communies. Our sampling
in the Tłı
̨
chǫ region (summers of 2016 and 2017) was
facilitated by local community directors, and occurred in
associaon with local guides who were instrumental in
nalizing site-selecon decisions and assisng with our
access to local lands. Work in the Dehcho occurred in
collaboraon with members of the Jean Marie River First
Naon who assisted with sampling a local stream (Spence
Creek) that burned extensively during the 2014 re. We
have found these partnerships to be crical for ensuring
that sampling eorts are appropriately targeng areas of
many landscape controls on the funconing of aquac
ecosystems, and that this disturbance does not have an
overriding eect on water quality at the mul-year scale.
Conclusions
The results of this project indicate that re does not have
a long-lasng eect on downstream water chemistry
in streams across the southern NWT. This result is
somewhat contradictory to studies from Subarcc
Alaska and non-permafrost aected boreal regions in
Alberta, which have shown clear eects of wildre on
stream water nutrients, organics, and toxins (Bes and
Jones 2009, Kelly et al. 2006). Instead, this research may
add to other emerging studies that are showing aquac
ecosystems to be relavely resilient to the eects of
wildre in their catchments (e.g., Lewis et al. 2014), and
suggests that — over yearly me scales — the eects of
wildre are relavely small compared to other spaally
variable drivers of water chemistry, and therefore
dicult to dierenate from background variability.
Community considerations
The 2014 wildre season burned 3.4 million hectares
of land (Fig. 1). Because the area of disturbance was
largely in the more densely inhabited southern NWT,
Figure 4: The distribuon of synopc sampling sites across a range of landscape condions (each point shows an individual
catchment): (a) slope, (b) percent lake cover, and (c) percent wetland cover for sites on the Taiga Plains (blue) and Taiga
Shield (orange). Within each landscape type, burned sites are shown as circles outlined in red and unburned sites are shown
as triangles outlined in black. Individual sample sites are ordered by increasing coverage of the within-catchment landscape
condion; note the dierences in scale on the y-axis.
Figure 5: Constuent concentraons and yields (area-normalized exports) across burned (B) and unburned (UB) sites, for
sampling at scales ranging from pore waters to the broad landscape: (a) pore-water concentraons of dissolved organic
carbon (DOC) in burned and unburned plots of the Scoy Creek catchment; (b) catchment-outlet DOC yields for Scoy
Creek (>99.8% unburned) and Notawohka Creek (>90% burned) through the enre 2016 season; (c) synopc-scale DOC
concentraons from across the 50 catchments for samples collected during summer 2016; and (d, e, f) synopc-scale total
dissolved nitrogen (TDN), total dissolved phosphorus (TDP), and dissolved calcium (Ca) concentraons, all from summer 2016.
REPORT 2018 39
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ARCTIC MARINE ECOLOGY BENCHMARKING PROGRAM:
Monitoring biodiversity using scuba
few scuba diving surveys of nearshore marine ora and
fauna in the Canadian Arcc, which faces increasing risk
due to climate change, invasive species, and increased
human acvity. This project addresses this signicant gap
by establishing baseline biodiversity data and iniang
long-term nearshore monitoring near Cambridge Bay,
Nunavut.
Methods
Scuba diving
Dives were completed by Ocean Wise divers holding a
Scienc Diver Level II rang, as dened by the Canadian
Associaon for Underwater Science (caus.ca) Standard
of Pracce for Scienc Diving, and were planned using
DCIEM Air Diving Tables as no-decompression dives
using compressed air. No more than two dives per day
per diver were undertaken. Dives met the requirements
of the Nunavut Occupaonal Health and Safety
Regulaons: Part 20, Diving Operaons. The project
included a combinaon of shore- and boat-based dives.
Suggested citation:
Schultz, J., Heywood, J., Gibbs, D., Borden, L., Kent, D., Neale, M., Kulcsar, C., Banwait, R., and Trethewey, L. 2018. Arctic Marine ecology benchmarking
program: Monitoring biodiversity using scuba. Polar Knowledge: Aqhaliat 2018, Polar Knowledge Canada, p. 39–45. DOI: 10.35298/pkc.2018.05
Abstract
Building on the catalogue of data gathered during the
2015 and 2016 Nearshore Ecological Surveys, the 2017
Arcc Marine Ecology Benchmarking Program (AMEBP)
collected biodiversity and abundance data on marine
algae, invertebrates, and sh species using scuba diving
at selected sites near Cambridge Bay, Nunavut, in the
summer of 2017. The project served as a pilot study to
assess scuba diving survey modes (transect vs. taxon)
and make recommendaons for future research and
monitoring eorts. This paper is a summary of the 2017
Arcc Marine Ecology Benchmarking Program Final
Report (available on request).
Introduction
Reliable baseline data and ongoing monitoring are
essenal for developing a full understanding of the
changes underway in Canada’s Arcc, thereby enabling
the development of eecve management strategies
and conservaon plans. The nearshore ecosystem is a key
part of the larger marine ecosystem, because it is where
most direct human impact, such as boang, hunng, and
harvesng, takes place. However, there have been very
Jessica Schultz
1
, Jeremy Heywood
1 *
, Donna Gibbs
1
, Laura Borden
1
, Danny Kent
1
, Mackenzie Neale
1
,
Crystal Kulcsar
1
, Ruby Banwait
1
, and Laura Trethewey
1
1
Ocean Wise Conservation Association, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
* jeremy[email protected]
The Ocean Wise Conservation Association (OWCA, ocean.org) is a global ocean conservation organization focused
on protecting and restoring our world’s oceans.
Koch, J.C., Kikuchi, C.P., Wickland, K.P., and Schuster,
P. 2014. Runo sources and ow paths in a parally
burned, upland boreal catchment underlain by
permafrost. Water Resources Research 50:8141–8158.
doi: 10.1002/2014wr015586.
Lewis, T.L., Lindberg, M.S., Schmutz, J.A., and Bertram,
M.R. 2014. Multrophic resilience of boreal lake
ecosystems to forest res. Ecology 95:1253–1263.
Minshall, G.F., Brock, J.T., Andrews, D.A., and Robinson,
C.T. 2001. Water quality, substratum, and bioc responses
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Silins, U., Bladon, K.D., Kelly, E.N., Esch, E., Spence, J.R.,
Stone, M., et al. 2014. Five-year legacy of wildre and
salvage logging impacts on nutrient runo and aquac
plant, invertebrate, and sh producvity. Ecohydrology
7:1508–1523. doi: 10.1002/eco.1474.
Smith, H.G., Sheridan, G.J., Lane, P.N.J., Nyman, P.,
and Haydon S. 2011. Wildre eects on water quality
in forest catchments: A review with implicaons for
water supply. Journal of Hydrology 396:170–192. doi:
10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.10.043.
Tank, S.E., Frey, K.E., Striegl, R.G., Raymond, P.A.,
Holmes, R.M., McClelland, J.W., et al. 2012. Landscape-
level controls on dissolved carbon ux from diverse
catchments of the circumboreal. Global Biogeochemical
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stream nutrient chemistry and ecosystem metabolism
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Burd, K., Tank, S.E., Dion, N., Quinton, W.L., Spence, C.,
Tanentzap, A.J., and Olefeldt, D. 2018. Seasonal shis in
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POLAR KNOWLEDGE Aqhaliat
